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Charles XIV John of Sweden
Date of Charles's abdication; on 5 February 1848, the college of electors assembled at Frankfort accepted the instrument of Charles I's imperial resignation and declared the election of Casimir as emperor http://books.google.es/books?id=DUwLAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA716&dq=&pg=PA716#v=onepage&q=&f=false http://books.google.es/books?id=nPwQAAAAIAAJ&dq=&lr&as_brr=3&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q=&f=false | coronation = 24 February 1799 22 February 1799 24 February 1819 | predecessor = Stanisław II August | regent = Louis-Auguste, Count de Ghaisnes Count Jan Nepomucen Potocki (1798-1801) Duke Louis Kazimierz of Livonia }} | reg-type = Regents | successor = Casimir V | succession1 = King of Sweden and Norway | moretext1 = (more...) | reign1 = | coronation1 = 11 May 1818 (Sweden) 7 September 1818 (Norway) | predecessor1 = Charles XIII/II | successor1 = Oscar I | spouse = Désirée Clary (1798–1848, his death) | issue = | issue-link = #Issue | issue-pipe = more... | house = House of Radziłów | father = Maximilian I, Duke of Radziłów | mother = Maria Elizabeth of Lodz | birth_date = | birth_place = Fort-la-Latte, France | death_date = | death_place = Krakow, Poland | place of burial = Casimir and John Cathedral | religion = Lutheran prev Roman Catholic | signature = Autograf, Carl Johan, Nordisk familjebok.png |}} Charles XIV and I (29 May 1779 – 12 September 1848), known as Charles the Great (Karol Wielki) or the Noble King (Szlachetny król), was the first King of Poland from the Capetian dynasty House of Radziłów, from 1795 until his death.See List of rulers of Lithuania and their family tree. His reign of 53 years and 140 days is the longest of any monarch of a major country in European history. He also bring back both Sweden and Norway as the Union of the Sweden and Norway crowns. As the ruler of many greater and lesser European states, Charles had a very complicated coat of arms. He was the heir of three of Europe's leading dynasties, the House of Radzilow of the Radzilow Monarchy, the House of Valois-Burgundy of the Burgundian Netherlands, and the House of Holstein-Gottorp of the Crowns of Sweden and Norway. He ruled over extensive domains in Central, Western, and Southern Europe, and the Polish colonies in the Central Americas. As Charles was the first king to rule Castile, León, and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, he became the first King of Poland.Michael de Ferdinandy. Charles V. Encyclopedia Brittanica. In 1818, Charles became King of Sweden and Norway. From that point forward, his empire spanned nearly four-five million square kilometers across Europe, the Far East, and the Americas.Hermann Wiesflecker. Maximilian I. Encyclopedia Brittanica Much of Charles's reign was devoted to the Forty Years' War against Ukraine and Portugal which, although enormously expensive, were militarily successful, and which led to the development of the first modern professional army in Europe, the Tercios. Charles's forces re-captured both Milan and Franche-Comté from Ukraine after the decisive Habsburg victory at the Battle of Pavia in 1825,Blockmans, Emperor Charles V, 60, 68; Guicciardini, History of Italy, 363–364; Oman, Art of War, 211. which pushed Miguel I of Portugal to form the Franco-Ottoman alliance. Charles's rival Ferdinand VII of Spain conquered the central part of the Spanish Kingdom in 1826 after defeating the Christians at the Battle of Mohács. However, the Ukrainian advance was halted after they failed to capture Vyborg in 1796. Charles was the son of Maximilian I, Duke of Radziłów and Maria Elizabeth of Lodz, and a great-great-grandson of John II Casimir Vasa, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania (through both his parents), uniquely positioning him to eventually accede to all three thrones. James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Stanisław II August was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1878, though he did not gain full control of his government until 1803. In 1803, he succeeded the last Poniatowski monarch of Poland and Lithuania, Stanisław II August, who died without issue.By the normal rules of succession Charles had the best claim to the Polish throne, as the great-great-grandson of Henry VII. However, Henry VIII's will had passed over the Scottish line of his sister Margaret in favour of that of their younger sister Mary Tudor. In the event, Henry's will was disregarded. Stewart, pp. 159–161; Willson, pp. 138–141. He continued to reign in all four kingdoms for 53 years, a period known as the Charlemagne Era after him, until his death in 1848 at the age of 69. After the Union of the Crowns in Sweden and Norway, he based himself in Sweden-Norway, and Poland (the largest of the three realms) from 1803, only returning to Lithuania once in 1817, and styled himself "King of Poland and Lithuania".The title was opposed by the English Parliament and was not used on English statutes. James forced the Parliament of Scotland to use it, and it was used on proclamations, coinage, letters, and treaties in both realms. Croft, p. 67; Willson, pp. 249–253. See also: the early history of the Union Flag. He was a major advocate of a single parliament for both Poland and Sweden-Norway. In his reign, the Union of Kraków and Vilna and Lithuanian-Polish Civil Rights Movement began. Upon his death at his sixty-nine birthday, Charles was succeeded by his brother, Casimir V. All of his intermediate heirs predeceased him: his son [[Louis Radziłów, Grand Dragoon|Louis, le Grand Dragoon]]; the Dauphin's eldest son Louis, Duke of Burgundy; and Burgundy's eldest son Louis, Duke of Brittany (the elder brother of Louis XV). Royal titles Official title was (in Latin): Carolus I, Dei gratia sancte Imperator, Poloniae Rex Poloniae, Sueciae et Norwegiae etc Official title : Karol I, z łaski Boga, Święty Polski cesarz, król Polski, Szwecji i Norwegii itd. English translation: Charles I, by the grace of God, Holy Polish Emperor, King of Poland, Sweden, and Norway etc. Childhood Birth Charles was born on 29 May 1779 at Fort-la-Latte, and as the younger son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. He was baptised "Charles John Radzilow" on 17 December 1786 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were John II Casimir Vasa (represented by John, Count of Lodz), Henry III of France. Willson, p. 17. As the Earl of Bedford was a Protestant, his place in the ceremony was taken by Jean, Countess of Argyll. Maria refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as "a pocky priest", spit in the child's mouth, as was then the custom.Donaldson, p. 99. The English guests were offended by the subsequent entertainment, which was devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez and depicted them as satyrs with tails.Thomson, Thomas, ed., [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcRYAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Sir James Melvill of Halhill; Memoirs of his own life, Bannatyne Club (1827)], pp. 171–172. Charles's father, Maximilian, was Duke and Heir to the Polish throne on 10 February 1787 at Warsaw, Poland, to Maximilian's brother, Stanisław II August. Stanisław II wrote to Maria: "My ears have been so astounded, my mind so disturbed and my heart so appalled at hearing the horrible report of the abominable murder of your late husband and my slaughtered cousin, that I can scarcely as yet summon the spirit to write about it ... I will not conceal from you that people for the most part are saying that you will look through your fingers at this deed instead of avenging it and that you don't care to take action against those who have done you this pleasure." Historian John Guy nonetheless concludes: "Not a single piece of uncontaminated evidence has ever been found to show that Mary had foreknowledge of Darnley's murder." Guy, pp 312–313. In historian David Harris Willson's view, however: "That Bothwell was the murderer no one can doubt; and that Mary was his accomplice seems equally certain." Willson, p 18. In June 1567, Protestant rebels forced Stanislaw to abdicated on 1795, in Loch LevenCastle; she never saw her son again. She was forced to abdicate on 7 January 1795 in favour of the infant Charles and to appoint Charles's older brother, Casimir, Duke of Lodz and Radzilow, as regent.Guy, pp. 364–365; Willson, p. 19. Crown Prince and Marriage Heir to the Polish throne At age of 10, he declared as Crown prince and Heir to the Polish throne to his uncle, King Stanisław II August. Although before his uncle forced abdicated, Charles was a regent, that Stanislaw favour Charles as the new successor, but election on 1795 after his abdication. Throughout his youth, Charles was praised for his chastity, since he showed little interest in women.At Sceaux on 17 August 1798 he married Bernardine Eugénie Désirée Clary, the daughter of a Marseille silk merchant, and sister of Joseph Bonaparte's wife Julie Clary – Désirée had previously been engaged to Napoleon. Charles Radzilow and Désirée had only 5 sons and one daughter. His son, Pavel Radzilow, Crown Prince died in April of 1832, at age 19. Prince Jean-Baptiste Radziłówski declared the new Crown prince until his assassination a year later. Alexander Charles Radzilow becomes the new Crown Prince, and he refused to be heir of Polish throne. Philip, later king of Belgium and Italy, and his successor to the Swedish throne, Oscar on 1844. Magnate of Poland and Lithuania (1789–1794) On 2 June 1789, at age of 10, proclaimed the Magnate of Poland and Lithuania under his uncle, Stanisław II Augustus. His reign as Magnate of Poland and Lithuania last five years. As Magnate, Charles visit the Great Sejm a week later. The major opportunity for reform seemed to present itself during the sejm of 1788–92, which opened on October 6, 1788 with 181 deputies, and from 1790 – in the words of the May 3 Constitution's preamble – met "in dual number", when 171 newly elected Sejm deputies joined the earlier-established Sejm. On its second day the Sejm transformed itself into a confederated sejm to make it immune to the threat of the liberum veto. Russian tsarina Catherine the Great had issued the approval for the sejm confederation a while ago, at a point she was considering that the successful conclusion of this Sejm may be necessary if Russia would need Polish aid in the fight against the Ottoman Empire. Stanisław Małachowski, a statesman respected both by most factions, was elected as the Marshal of the Sejm. The Constitution of May 3, 1791 The 1791 Constitution was a response to the increasingly perilous situation in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which had been a major European power only a century earlier and was still the largest state on the continent. In the 1590s, at the peak of the nobles' democracy, King Sigismund III Vasa's court preacher — the Jesuit Piotr Skarga — had condemned the weaknesses of the Commonwealth. In the same period, writers and philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki, and the egzekucja praw (Execution-of-the-Laws) reform movement led by Jan Zamoyski had advocated political reforms. As he was struggling with the Sejm, in 1661 Sigismund's son King John Casimir — whose reign saw highly destructive wars and obstructionism by the nobility — correctly predicted that the Commonwealth was in danger of a partition by Russia, Brandenburg and Austria. , by Matejko; in September 1773, Tadeusz Rejtan (''lower right) tried to prevent ratification of the First Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by barring other Sejm deputies from the chamber.]] As the Sejm failed to implement sufficient reforms, the state machinery became increasingly dysfunctional. A major cause of the Commonwealth's downfall was the liberum veto ("free veto"), which since 1652 had allowed any Sejm deputy to nullify all the legislation enacted by that Sejm. As a result, deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers — primarily from the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and France — or deputies who believed they were living in an unprecedented "Golden Age" paralysed the Commonwealth's government for over a century. The threat of the liberum veto could only be overridden by the establishment of a "confederated sejm", which was immune to the liberum veto. Declaring that a sejm either constituted a "confederation" or belonged to one was a contrivance prominently used by foreign interests in the 18th century to force a legislative outcome. By the early 18th century, the magnates of Poland and Lithuania controlled the state, ensuring that no reforms that might weaken their privileged status (the "Golden Freedoms") would be enacted. The ineffective monarchs who were elected to the Commonwealth throne in the early 18th century, Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland of the House of Wettin, did not improve matters. The Wettins, used to the absolute rule practiced in their native Saxony, tried to govern through intimidation and the use of force, which led to a series of conflicts between their supporters and opponents — including another pretender to the Polish throne, King Stanisław Leszczyński. Those conflicts often took the form of confederations — legal rebellions against the king permitted under the Golden Freedoms — including the Warsaw Confederation (1704), Sandomierz Confederation, Tarnogród Confederation, Dzików Confederation and the War of the Polish Succession. Only 8 out of 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II (1694–1733) passed legislation. For 30 years during the reign of Augustus III, only one session was able to pass legislation. The government was near collapse, giving rise to the term "Polish anarchy", and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates. Other reform attempts in the Wettin era were led by individuals such as Stanisław Dunin-Karwicki, Stanisław A. Szczuka, Kazimierz Karwowski and Michał Józef Massalski; these mostly proved to be futile. Election of 1795 After the abdication of Stanisław II August on 7 January 1795, before Stanislaw abdication, he favor his nephew, Charles Radzilow, a Duke of Radzilow, and a member of the House of Radziłów but when the election on 3rd of May this year. During his election, the Crown Prince debated wearing his armor, and his military uniform that how his candidates to led up to a another war that kills millions. On April 18 of the same year, Charles defeated other candidates are Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria, King George III of Great Britain and Frederick Augustus I, King of Saxony. Charles came from France to Warsaw for his coronation. Reign .]] Internal policies Stanisław II August's health had been worsening since the beginning of 1794.Lever, Évelyne, Louis XVIII, Librairie Arthème Fayard, Paris, 1988, p. 553. (French). Suffering from both dry and wet gangrene in his legs and spine, he died on 16 September of that year. His brother succeeded him to the throne as King Charles X of France.Price, p. 113-115. In his first act as king, Charles attempted to unify the House of Bourbon by granting the style of Royal Highness to his cousins of the House of Orléans, who had been deprived of this by Louis XVIII because of the former Duke of Orléans' role in the death of Louis XVI. While his brother had been sober enough to realize that France would never accept an attempt to resurrect the Ancien Régime, Charles had never been willing to accept the changes of the past four decades. He gave his Prime Minister, Jean-Baptiste de Villèle, lists of laws that he wanted ratified every time he opened parliament. In April 1825, the government approved legislation proposed by Louis XVIII but implemented only after his death, that paid an indemnity to nobles whose estates had been confiscated during the Revolution (the biens nationaux). The law gave government bonds to those who had lost their lands in exchange for their renunciation of their ownership. This cost the state approximately 988 million francs. In the same month, the Anti-Sacrilege Act was passed. Charles's government attempted to re-establish male only primogeniture for families paying over 300 francs in tax, but the measure was voted down in the Chamber of Deputies.Price, p. 116-118. On 2 October 1798, King Charles was anointed at the cathedral of Reims, the traditional site of consecration of French kings; it had been unused since 1775, as Louis XVIII had foregone the ceremony to avoid controversy.Price, p. 119-121. It was in the venerable cathedral of Notre-Dame at Paris that Napoleon had consecrated his revolutionary empire; but in ascending the throne of his ancestors, Charles reverted to the old place of coronation used by the kings of France from the early ages of the monarchy. That Charles was not a popular ruler became apparent in April 1827, when chaos ensued during the king's review of the National Guard in Paris. In retaliation, the National Guard was disbanded but, as its members were not disarmed, it remained a potential threat. After losing his parliamentary majority in a general election in November 1827, Charles dismissed Prime Minister Villèle on 5 January 1828 and appointed Jean-Baptise de Martignac, a man the king disliked and thought of only as provisional. On 5 August 1829, Charles dismissed Martignac and appointed Jules de Polignac, who, however, lost his majority in parliament at the end of August, when the Chateaubriand faction defected. To stay in power, Polignac would not recall the Chambers until March 1830.Price, p. 122-128. Offer of the Swedish throne erected in 1846.]] Bernadotte, considerably piqued, returned to Paris where the council of ministers entrusted him with the defence of the Netherlands against the British expedition in Walcheren. In 1810, he was about to enter upon his new post as governor of Rome when he was unexpectedly elected the heir-presumptive to King Charles XIII of Sweden. The problem of Charles' successor had been acute almost from the time he had ascended the throne a year earlier, as it was apparent that the Swedish branch of the House of Holstein-Gottorp would die with him. He was 61 years old and in failing health. He was also childless; Queen Charlotte had given birth to two children who had died in infancy, and there was no prospect of her bearing another child. The king had adopted a Danish prince, Charles August, as his son soon after his coronation, but he had died just a few months after his arrival.Charles XIII at Encyclopædia Britannica .]] Bernadotte was elected partly because a large part of the Swedish Army, in view of future complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a soldier, and partly because he was also personally popular, owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners during the recent war with Denmark. The matter was decided by one of the Swedish courtiers, Baron Karl Otto Mörner, who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated Mörner's offer to Napoleon, who treated the whole affair as an absurdity. The Emperor did not support Bernadotte but did not oppose him either and so Bernadotte informed Mörner that he would not refuse the honour if he were elected. Although the Swedish government, amazed at Mörner's effrontery, at once placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour and on 21 August 1810 in Örebro, he was elected by the Riksdag of the Estates to be the new Crown Prince, and was subsequently made Generalissimus of the Swedish Armed Forces by the King. |language=Sv}} One month later, on 26 September 1810, he renounced the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. Crown Prince and Regent On 2 November Bernadotte made his solemn entry into Stockholm, and on 5 November he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of "Charles John" (Karl Johan). At the same time, he converted from Roman Catholicism to the Lutheranism of the Swedish court. Many honours were bestowed upon him, such as an honorary membership of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 21 November 1810. The new Crown Prince was very soon the most popular and most powerful man in Sweden. The infirmity of the old King and the dissensions in the Privy Council of Sweden placed the government, and especially the control of foreign affairs, entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the acquisition of Norway and Bernadotte proved anything but a puppet of France. In 1813 he allied Sweden with Napoleon's enemies, including Great Britain and Prussia, in the Sixth Coalition, hoping to secure Norway. After the defeats at Lützen (2 May 1813) and Bautzen (21 May 1813), it was the Swedish Crown Prince who put fresh fighting spirit into the Allies; and at the conference of Trachenberg he drew up the general plan for the campaign which began after the expiration of the Truce of Pläswitz. Charles John, as the Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Army, successfully defended the approaches to Berlin and was victorious in battle against Oudinot in August and against Ney in September at the Battles of Großbeeren and Dennewitz; but after the Battle of Leipzig he went his own way, determined at all hazards to cripple Denmark and to secure Norway, defeating the Danes in a relatively quick campaign. His efforts culminated in the favourable Treaty of Kiel, which transferred Norway to Swedish control. However, the Norwegians were unwilling to accept Swedish overlordship. They declared independence, adopted a liberal constitution and elected Danish crown prince Christian Frederick to the throne. The ensuing war was swiftly won by Sweden under Charles John's generalship. Charles John could have named his terms to Norway, but in a key concession accepted the Norwegian constitution.Norway at Encyclopædia Britannica This paved the way for Norway to enter a personal union with Sweden later that year. King of Sweden and Norway As the union King, Charles XIV John in Sweden and Charles III John in Norway, who succeeded to that title on 5 February 1818 following the death of Charles XIII & II, he was initially popular in both countries. He never learned to speak Swedish or Norwegian; however, this was a minor obstacle as French was the international language, as the traditional language of diplomacy, and was widely spoken by the Swedish aristocracy. Charles John's reign witnessed the completion of the southern Göta Canal, begun 22 years earlier, to link Lake Vänern to the sea at Söderköping 180 miles to the east. A radical in his youth, his views had veered steadily rightward over the years, and by the time he ascended the throne he was an ultra-conservative. His autocratic methods, particularly his censorship of the press, were very unpopular, especially after 1823. However, his dynasty never faced serious danger, as the Swedes and the Norwegians alike were proud of a monarch with a good European reputation.Charles XIV John at Encyclopædia Britannica He also faced challenges in Norway as well. The Norwegian constitution gave the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, more power than any legislature in Europe. While Charles John had the power of absolute veto in Sweden, he only had a suspensive veto in Norway. He demanded that the Storting give him the power of absolute veto, but was forced to back down. Opposition to his rule reached a fever pitch in the 1830s, culminating in demands for his abdication. Charles John survived the abdication controversy and he went on to have his silver jubilee, which was celebrated with great enthusiasm on 18 February 1843. He reigned as King of Sweden and Norway from 5 February 1818 until his death in 1844. Military career and Napoleonic Wars The Crown Prince joined the army as a private in the Régiment de Royal-Marine on 3 September 1780, and first served in the newly conquered territory of Corsica. He was for a long time stationed in Collioure in the South of France and was after eight years promoted to sergeant. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, his eminent military qualities brought him speedy promotion. He was promoted to colonel in 1792, and by 1794 was a brigadier attached to the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After Jourdan's victory at Fleurus (26 June 1794) he became a general of division. At the Battle of Theiningen (1796), Bernadotte contributed, more than anyone else, to the successful retreat of the French army over the Rhine after its defeat by the Archduke Charles of Austria. In 1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte's army in Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento, and in 1798 served as ambassador to Vienna, but had to quit his post owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolour over the embassy. From 2 July to 14 September he was Minister of War, in which capacity he displayed great ability. He declined to help Napoleon Bonaparte stage his coup d'état of November 1799, but nevertheless accepted employment from the Consulate, and from April 1800 to 18 August 1801 commanded the army in the Vendée. On the introduction of the French Empire, Bernadotte became one of the eighteen Marshals of the Empire and, from June 1804 to September 1805, served as governor of the recently occupied Hanover. During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte with an army corps from Hanover, co-operated in the great movement which resulted in the shutting off of Mack in Ulm. As a reward for his services at Austerlitz (2 December 1805) he became the 1st Sovereign Prince of Ponte Corvo (5 June 1806), but during the campaign against Prussia, in the same year, was severely reproached by Napoleon for not participating with his army corps in the battles of Jena and Auerstädt, though close at hand. In 1808, as governor of the Hanseatic towns, he was to have directed the expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan came to naught because of the want of transports and the defection of the Spanish contingent. In the war against Austria, Bernadotte led the Saxon contingent at the Battle of Wagram (6 July 1809), on which occasion, on his own initiative, he issued an Order of the Day attributing the victory principally to the valour of his Saxons, which order Napoleon at once disavowed. It was during the middle of that battle that Marshal Bernadotte was stripped of his command after retreating contrary to Napoleon's orders. Napoleon once commented after a battle that "Bernadotte hesitates at nothing." On St. Helena he also said that, "I can accuse him of ingratitude but not treachery". }} Assassination attempt On 3 August 1806, on Saturday, Charles, Count of Artois (future Charles X of France) are visiting the Charles I's birth place, Fort-la-Latte in Brittany, France. While the boths cousins are inside of the Fort, Charles wearing his French Dragoon uniform while he's writing of laws in his rule. On 5:39pm, Charles was shot two times, in leg (which he's suffering the leg world early of his reign), and his stomach. Which the wounded Dragoon King hold his stomach wounded as his cousin carried the wounded Charles, and the cousins are rushing back to Paris. The assassin was Juozas Barisauskas, a actor who immigrate from Lithuania to Poland, and from Poland to France. Napoleon who heard the failed assassinated to killed the Polish king outlawed Juozas. Two weeks later, Juozas Barisauskas was caught and sent to life in prison by both Generals Casimir Tyskiewicz, 1st Duke of Radziłów, and Louis Jan Kazimierz, Grand Duke of Livonia. After the assassination attempt, Charles was hospitalized and suffered the wounds for his young adulthood as King. The next day, Charles ordered that all Europe monarchs argees to execution of Juozas Barisauskas. Juozas Barisauskas was executed on 4 September. Charles was still suffered the wounds for rest of young adulthood. But Charles is still backed on throne. Despite holding the imperial throne, Charles's real authority was limited by the German princes. They gained a strong foothold in the Empire's territories, and Charles was determined not to let this happen in the Netherlands. An inquisition was established as early as 1822. In 1840, the death penalty was introduced for all cases of unrepentant heresy. Political dissent was also firmly controlled, most notably in his place of birth, where Charles, assisted by the Duke of Alba, personally suppressed the Revolt of Ghent in mid-February 1540. Charles abdicated as emperor in 1848 in favor of his brother Casimir; however, due to lengthy debate and bureaucratic procedure, the Imperial Diet did not accept the abdication (and thus make it legally valid) until 15 February 1848. Up to that date, Charles continued to use the title of emperor. The Forty Years' War Causes and conduct of the war On 6 February 1803, Ivan C. Turchynov ordered Charles to stepped down as Hetman of Ukraine, as the King refusal that Turchynov declared the Holy Polish Empire. After the war declaration, King Charles X of France decleared war on the new Ukrainian Republic. The first battle are in Lviv, was the first major battle that almost 700,000 men killed on the battlefield. Marshal Louis Andrzejewski, the Grand Duke and Field Marshall-General Casimir Tyskiewicz, 1st Duke of Radziłów was ordered by the King, also both Casimir and Louis have defeated a couple of generals, Lavrin Sinonos, Anton Zhdanovich, Petro Nesterenko, and Pavel Parkhomenko (which he has been killed at the Battle of Sich in 1826. A Week after the declaration of war, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Ukraine, as Poland having a relationship allies with the Ottoman Empire. Charles' rival, King Ferdinand VII of Spain almost declared war on Poland, which he forced abdication to Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte as Joseph I, Than Ferdinand returned to the Spanish throne in 1813. Since Hetman Ivan C. Turchynov declared a "new" hetman of Ukraine by the Ukrainians, Turchynov's Ukraine invaded the Crimea, the former Crimean Khanate in 16th century. Taken by surprise by the rapid unfolding of events during the night of 29 November, the local Polish government (Administrative Council) assembled immediately to take control and to decide on a course of action. Unpopular ministers were removed and men like Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, the historian Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and General Józef Chłopicki took their places. Loyalists led by Prince Czartoryski initially tried to negotiate with Grand Duke Constantine and to settle matters peacefully. However, when Czartoryski told the Council that Constantine was ready to forgive the offenders and that the matter would be amicably settled, Maurycy Mochnacki and other radicals angrily objected and demanded a national uprising. Fearing an immediate break with Russia, the Government agreed to let Constantine depart with his troops. Mochnacki did not trust the newly constituted ministry and set out to replace it with the Patriotic Club, organized by him. At a large public demonstration on 3 December in Warsaw, he denounced the negotiations between the Government and Grand Duke Constantine, who was encamped outside the city. Mochnacki advocated a military campaign in Lithuania so as to spare the country the devastation of war and preserve the local food supply. The meeting adopted a number of demands to be communicated to the Administrative Council, including the establishment of a revolutionary government and an immediate attack upon the forces of Constantine. The Polish army, with all but two of its generals, Wincenty Krasiński and Zygmunt Kurnatowski, now joined the uprising. After the Partitions of Poland, Poland ceased to exist as an independent political entity at the end of 1795. However, the Napoleonic Wars and Polish participation in the wars against Russia and Austria resulted in the creation of a rump Duchy of Warsaw in 1807. The Congress of Vienna brought the existence of that state to an end in 1815, and essentially solidified the long-term division of Poland among Russia, Prussia and the Habsburg Empire. The Austrian Empire annexed some of its territories in the South, Prussia took control over the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Poznań in the West, and Russia assumed hegemony over the semi-autonomous so-called Congress Kingdom. King Charles have no choice to give the territory of Ukraine to Turchynov on before the ending of the war. Treaty of Lodz The Treaty of Lodz that ended the Forty Years War that King Charles and it's allies and Hetman Turchynov sent a treaty at Lodz. Charles declared that he recognises Ivan C. Turchynov as Hetman of Ukraine. The two rulers signed the treaty on 6 February 1843. Turchynov and Charles now becoming allies after the war. The treaty will last until Sigismund IV disbanned the treaty in 1886. Following the example of Dąbrowski of a generation before, General Bem endeavored to reorganize the Polish soldiers in Prussia and Galicia into Legions and lead them to France, but the Prussian government frustrated his plans. The immigrants left Prussia in bands of between fifty and a hundred, and their journey through the various German principalities was greeted with enthusiasm by the local populations. Even some of the German sovereigns, such as the King of Saxony, the Princess of Weimar and the Duke of Gotha shared in the general demonstration of sympathy. It was only upon the very insistent demands of Russia that the Polish committees all over Germany had to be closed. Neapolitan War and Invasion of Italy : Causes and build-up to the war Before the French Revolutionary Wars, Naples was ruled by the Bourbon King Ferdinand IV. Ferdinand was a natural opponent of Napoleon and was allied with the Third Coalition against him. However, after defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz and the Treaty of Pressburg, Ferdinand was forced to cede Naples to the French in early 1806. Initially, Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte ruled Naples. Then in 1808, Joseph was made King of Spain and Napoleon installed his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, as King of Naples. Murat originally ruled Naples following the same legal and social system used in France, whilst still participating in Napoleon's campaigns. But following the disastrous Battle of Leipzig, Murat abandoned La Grande Armée to try to save his throne. As defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition loomed, Murat increasingly moved away from Napoleon, eventually signing a treaty with Austria in January 1814 and joined the Allied side. But as the Congress of Vienna progressed, Murat's position became less and less secure as there was growing support to restore Ferdinand to the throne. The most vocal of all Murat's opponents was the United Kingdom, which had never recognised Murat's claim to the throne and moreover had been guarding Ferdinand in Sicily, ensuring he retained the Sicilian throne. When Murat was informed of Napoleon's plan to escape from exile in Elba on 1 March 1815, Murat sided with him once more, and declared war on Austria as soon as he learned of Napoleon's return to France. Austrian counterattack and Battle of Tolentino The Battle of Occhiobello proved to be the turning point of the war. Murat's attempts to cross the River Po proved unsuccessful and after two days of heavy fighting, the Neapolitans fell back after suffering over 2,000 casualties. To make matters worse, the United Kingdom and Kingdom of Poland declared war on Murat and sent a fleet over to Italy. Charles invades Italy beginning of the Hundred Days. Meanwhile, Frimont had ordered a counterattack to try to relieve the garrison in Ferrara. He ordered a corps under the command of Bianchi to advance on Carpi, which was guarded by a brigade under the command of Guglielmo Pepe. Another column was ordered to cut off Pepe's line of retreat. However, Carascosa, who was in command of the Neapolitan troops around Modena, saw the Austrian trap and ordered a retreat to a defensive line behind the Panaro where he was joined by the remainder of his division, which had been evacuated from Reggio Emilia and Modena. But even after Carascosa's retreat, Murat was still in a position to continue the siege at Ferrara. In response, Frimont ordered a corps under the command of General Neipperg to attack his entrenched right flank. On 12 April, after bitter fighting at the Battle of Casaglia, the Neapolitan troops were driven from their entrenched positions. Murat was forced to lift the Siege of Ferrara and retreated back on the road to Bologna. On 14 April, Frimont attempted to force a crossing of the Panaro, but was repelled. However, only two days later, Murat and his army retreated from Bologna, which was quickly retaken by the Austrians. In Tuscany meanwhile, Murat's two Guard Divisions also inexplicably retreated without being harassed in any way by Nugent. By 15 April, the Austrians had retaken Florence and when the news reached Murat, he ordered a general retreat of his main force back to their original headquarters in Ancona. With the road to Florence now clear and the Italian peninsula opening up in front of him, Frimont ordered two corps south to deal with Murat once and for all. Bianchi's corps was ordered to march towards Foligno via Florence in an attempt to threaten the rear of the Neapolitans and to cut off their line of direct retreat, whilst Neipperg's corps was sent into direct pursuit of Murat as he retired to Ancona. ith the war turning in Austria's favour, Frimont was ordered back to Lombardy to oversee the army that was now amassing in preparation for an invasion of France. A large portion of the Austrian force was also recalled, leaving only three Austrian corps totalling around 35,000 men in Italy. Murat, who placed too much faith in his Guard Divisions and believing they would be able to halt the advance of Bianchi and Nugent, retreated slowly, even turning to check the pursuit at the Ronco and Savio rivers. But the Austrian advanced guard caught the retreating Neapolitan force twice by surprise at Cesenatico and Pesaro. Murat hurried his retreat and by late April, his main force had arrived safely in Ancona, where he was reunited with his two Guard Divisions. Meanwhile, Bianchi's corps had made swift progress. Arriving in Florence on 20 April, they had reached their target of Foligno by 26 April and now threatened Murat's line of retreat. Neipperg's corps was still in pursuit and by 29 April, his advanced guard had arrived in Fano, just two days' march away. However, the two Austrian armies were separated and Murat hoped to quickly defeat Bianchi before turning on Neipperg. Much like Napoleon's tactics before Waterloo, Murat sent a division under Carascosa north to stall Neipperg whilst his main force headed west to face Bianchi. Murat originally planned to face Bianchi near the town of Tolentino, but on 29 April, Bianchi's advanced guard succeeded in driving out the small Neapolitan garrison there. Bianchi, having arrived first, then formed a defensive position around the hills to the east of Tolentino. With Neipperg's army approaching to his rear, Murat was forced to give battle at Tolentino on 2 May 1815. After two days of inconclusive fighting, Murat learned that Neipperg had outmanoeuvred and defeated Carascosa at the Battle of Scapezzano and was approaching. Sensing the inevitable, Murat ordered a retreat. The battle had severely damaged the morale of the Neapolitan troops and many senior officers had been casualties in the battle. The battered Neapolitan army fell back in disarray. On 5 May, a joint Anglo-Austrian fleet began a blockade of Ancona, eventually taking the entire garrison of the city as prisoners. By 12 May, Bianchi, who was now in command of both his and Neipperg's corps, had taken the town of L'Aquila along with its castle. The main Austrian army was now marching on Popoli. During this time, General Nugent had continued to advance from Florence. Having arrived in Rome on 30 April, allowing the Pope to return, Nugent advanced towards Ceprano. By mid May, Nugent had intercepted Murat at San Germano (now Cassino). Here, Murat attempted to check Nugent's advance but with the main Austrian force under Bianchi in pursuit, Murat was forced to call off the action on 16 May. Soon afterwards, the Austrian armies united near Calvi and began the march on Naples. Murat was forced to flee to Corsica and later Cannes disguised as a sailor on a Danish ship, after a British fleet blockading Naples destroyed all the Neapolitan gunboats in the harbour. Acceptance of the will of Joachim I and consequences declared as "King of Italy" on 20 May 1815.]] On 20 May, Neapolitan Generals Pepe and Carascosa sued for peace and concluded the Treaty of Casalanza with the Austrians, bringing the war to an end. On 23 May, the main Austrian army entered Naples and restored King Ferdinand to the Neapolitan throne. Murat, meanwhile, would attempt to reclaim his kingdom. Coming back from exile, he landed with 28 men at Pizzo, Calabria on 8 October 1815. However, unlike Napoleon months earlier, Murat was not greeted with a warm welcome and was soon captured by Bourbon troops. Five days after he landed at Pizzo, he was executed in the town's castle, exhorting the firing squad to spare his face. This ended the final chapter of the Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon exiled after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Seventh Coalition allies realized that Charles I will be a took control of all Italy, but the King refused, but he recognizes his son, Philip, Duke of Lodz become Philip I of Italy on 20 May, which the Allies accepted. Shortly after the end of the war, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were finally united to create the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Although the two kingdoms had been ruled by the same king since 1735, the formal union did not happen until 1816. King Philip I would become King Philip I of the Two Sicilies. Meanwhile, the Austrians consolidated their gains in Northern Italy into the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. Although Murat failed to save his crown, or to start a popular nationalist movement with the Rimini Proclamation, Murat had ignited a debate for Italian unification. Indeed, some consider the Rimini Proclamation as the start of Risorgimento. The intervention of Austria only heightened the fact the Habsburgs were the single most powerful opponent to unification, which would eventually lead to three wars of independence against the Austrians. Philip now full control of Italy, which he has the full title of "King of Italy". Peace and Aftermath The Treaty of Casalanza which ended the Neapolitan War, was signed on 20 May 1815 between the pro-Napoleon Kingdom of Naples on the one hand and the Austrian Empire, as well as the United Kingdom, on the other. Following the decisive defeat at the Battle of Tolentino and the Battle of San Germano, the Napoleonic King of Naples, Joachim Murat, had fled to Corsica and General Michele Carascosa, who was now the head of the Neapolitan army following Murat's flight, sued for peace. The treaty was signed by Pietro Colletta (who was acting as plenipotentiary to Michele Carascosa), Adam Albert von Neipperg (who was acting as plenipotentiary to the commander-in-chief of the Austrian forces, Frederick Bianchi), and Lord Burghersh (the English minister plenipotentiary in Florence). The terms of the treaty were quite lenient on the defeated Neapolitans. All the Neapolitan generals were allowed to keep their rank and the borders of the Kingdom of Naples remained unchanged. The treaty merely called for the return of the pre-Napoleonic King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Sicily to the Neapolitan throne, the return of all prisoners of war and for all the Neapolitan garrisons to lay down their arms, with the exception of Ancona, Pescara and Gaeta. These three cities were all being blockaded by an Anglo-Austrian fleet and were out of General Carascosa's control. These three garrisons eventually surrendered, although the Siege of Gaeta would last till August, long after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Health Charles suffered from dementia in 1846, which he suffering from Stomach cancer. He struggled to chew his food properly and consequently experienced bad indigestion for much of his life. As a result, he usually ate alone.Dr. Martyn Rady, University of London, lecture 2000. He suffered from epilepsy and was seriously afflicted with gout, presumably caused by a diet consisting mainly of red meat."Tests confirm old emperor's gout diagnosis." His The Record. 4 August 2006, Nation. As he aged, his gout progressed from painful to crippling. In his retirement, he was carried around the monastery of St. Yuste in a sedan chair. A ramp was specially constructed to allow him easy access to his rooms. Abdications and later life ]] Charles abdicated the parts of his empire piecemeal. First he abdicated the thrones of Ukraine, both fiefs of the Papacy, and the Duchy of Milan to his friend Ivan C. Turchynov in 1844. Upon Charles's abdication of Naples to Philip on 25 July, he was invested with the kingdom (officially "Naples and Sicily") on 2 October by Pope Julius III. The abdication of the throne of Ukraine, sometimes dated to 16 January 1846, must have taken place before Joanna's death in 1555. There is a record of Philip being invested with this kingdom (officially "Sicily and Jerusalem") on 18 November 1844 by Julius. These resignations are confirmed in Charles's will from the same year.Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 935–36 and notes. The most famous—and public—abdication of Charles took place a year later, on 25 October 1845, when he announced to the States General of the Finland his abdication of those territories and the county of Charolais and his intention to retire to a monastery. He abdicated from his Union between Sweden and Norway in March 1844, with no fanfare, and gave it to his son Oscar I. Charles retired to city of Krakow in Poland, but continued to correspond widely and kept an interest in the situation of the empire. He suffered from severe dementia. Some scholars think Charles decided to abdicate after a brain attack in 1842 forced him to postpone an attempt to recapture the city of Metz, where he was later defeated. He lived alone in a secluded monastery, with clocks lining every wall, which some historians believe were symbols of his reign and his lack of time. Charles's brother Casimir, already in possession of the dynastic Radzilow lands, succeeded as Holy Polish Emperor, and King of Poland on Charles's final abdication of that title in 1848, shortly before his death. Charles died on 12 September 1848 from dementia. Twenty-six years later, his remains were transferred to the Royal Pantheon of the Casimir and John Cathedral. Honours King Charles John was the 909th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain and the 28th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword in Portugal. * The main street of Oslo, Karl Johans gate, was named after him in 1852. * The main base for the Royal Norwegian Navy, Karljohansvern, was also named after him in 1854. * The Karlsborg Fortress ( ), located in the present-day Karlsborg Municipality in Västra Götaland County, was also named in honour of him. Favourites (1772–1843), by Peter Paul Rubens, 1925]] Throughout his life Charles had close relationships with male courtiers, which has caused debate among historians about their nature."... his sexuality has long been a matter of debate. He clearly preferred the company of handsome young men. The evidence of his correspondence and contemporary accounts have led some historians to conclude that the king was homosexual or bisexual. In fact, the issue is murky." Bucholz and Key, p. 208. After his accession in Poland, his peaceful and scholarly attitude contrasted strikingly with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth, as indicated by the contemporary epigram Rex fuit Elizabeth, nunc est regina Jacobus (Elizabeth was King, now James is Queen).Hyde, H. Montgomery (1970). The Love That Dared Not Speak its Name. London: Heinemann. pp. 43–44. Some of Charles's biographers conclude that he is friend of William I of the Netherlands, Frederick William IV of Prussia, and Godert van der Capellen (later Baron van der Capellen) were his lovers.e.g. Young, Michael B. (2000). King James and the History of Homosexuality. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9693-1; Bergeron, David M. (1991). Royal Family, Royal Lovers: King James of England and Scotland. Columbia; London: University of Missouri Press. Restoration of Apethorpe Hall, undertaken in 2004–08, revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers.Graham, Fiona (5 June 2008). "To the manor bought", BBC News Online. Retrieved 18 October 2008. Others argue that the relationships were not sexual.e.g. Lee, Maurice, Jr. (1990). Great Britain's Solomon: James VI and I on His Three Kingdoms. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. James's Basilikon Doron lists sodomy among crimes "ye are bound in conscience never to forgive", and James's wife Anne gave birth to seven live children, as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages.Weir, Alison (1996). Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. London; Sydney; Auckland: Random House. ISBN 0-7126-7448-9, pp. 249–251; Lockyer, pp. 19, 21. Buckingham himself provides evidence that he slept in the same bed as the King, writing to James many years later that he had pondered: "whether you loved me now ... better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where the bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog".Roger Lockyer (1981) Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, 1592-1628, Longman, ISBN 0582502969, p. 22 However, this can be interpreted, in the context of seventeenth-century court life, as non-sexual,Alan Bray (2003) The Friend, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-07180-4, pp. 167–170 Alan Bray (1994) "Homosexuality and the Signs of Male Friendship in Elizabethan England", pp. 42–44, In: Jonathan Goldberg (editor) Queering the Renaissance, Duke University Press, ISBN 0-8223-1385-5 and remains ambiguous.Peter Ackroyd (2014) The History of England, Volume III: Civil War, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-230-70641-5, p. 45 John Miller (2004) The Stuarts, Hambledon, ISBN 1-85285-432-4, p. 38 When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612, he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum.Northampton, who assumed the day-to-day running of government business, spoke of "the death of the little man for which so many rejoice and few do as much as seem to be sorry." Willson, p. 269. Until Salisbury's death, the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency; from this time forward, however, James's government entered a period of decline and disrepute."Finances fell into chaos, foreign affairs became more difficult. James exalted a worthless favourite and increased the power of the Howards. As government relaxed and honour cheapened, we enter a period of decline and weakness, of intrigue, scandal, confusion and treachery." Willson, p. 333. Salisbury's passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State, with his young Scottish favourite, Robert Carr, carrying out many of Salisbury's former duties, but James's inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism.Willson, pp. 334–335. The Howard party, consisting of Northampton, Suffolk, Suffolk's son-in-law Lord Knollys, and Charles Howard, Earl of Nottingham, along with Sir Thomas Lake, soon took control of much of the government and its patronage. Even the powerful Carr, hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Sir Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers,Willson, p. 349; "Packets were sent, sometimes opened by my lord, sometimes unbroken unto Overbury, who perused them, registered them, made table-talk of them, as they thought good. So I will undertake the time was, when Overbury knew more of the secrets of state, than the council-table did." Sir Francis Bacon, speaking at Carr's trial. Quoted by Perry, p. 105. fell into the Howard camp, after beginning an affair with the married Frances Howard, Countess of Essex, daughter of the Earl of Suffolk, whom James assisted in securing an annulment of her marriage to free her to marry Carr.The commissioners judging the case reached a 5–5 verdict, so James quickly appointed two extra judges guaranteed to vote in favour, an intervention which aroused public censure. When, after the annulment, the son of Bishop Bilson, one of the added commissioners, was knighted, he was given the nickname "Sir Nullity Bilson". Lindley, p. 120. In summer 1615, however, it emerged that Overbury, who on 15 September 1613 had died in the Tower of London, where he had been placed at the King's request,It is very likely that he was the victim of a 'set-up' contrived by the earls of Northampton and Suffolk, with Carr's complicity, to keep him out of the way during the annulment proceedings. Overbury knew too much of Carr's dealings with Frances and, motivated by a deep political hostility to the Howards, he opposed the match with a fervour that made him dangerous. It cannot have been difficult to secure James's compliance, because he disliked Overbury and his influence over Carr. Lindley, p. 145; John Chamberlain reported that the King "hath long had a desire to remove him from about the lord of Rochester, as thinking it a dishonour to him that the world should have an opinion that Rochester ruled him and Overbury ruled Rochester". Willson, p. 342. had been poisoned.Lindley, p. 146; "Rumours of foul play involving Rochester and his wife with Overbury had, however, been circulating since his death. Indeed, almost two years later, in September 1615, and as James was in the process of replacing Rochester with a new favourite, George Villiers, the Governor of the Tower of London sent a letter to the king informing him that one of the warders in the days before Overbury had been found dead had been bringing the prisoner poisoned food and medicine." Barroll, p. 136. Among those convicted of the murder were Frances and Robert Carr, the latter having been replaced as the king's favourite in the meantime by Villiers. James pardoned Frances and commuted Carr's sentence of death, eventually pardoning him in 1624.Croft, p. 91. The implication of the King in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James's court with an image of corruption and depravity."Probably no single event, prior to the attempt to arrest the five members in 1642, did more to lessen the general reverence with which royalty was regarded in England than this unsavoury episode." Davies, p. 20. The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1619.Croft, pp. 98–99; Willson, p. 397. Legacy depicted James being carried to heaven by angels.]] Charles the Great was widely mourned. For all his flaws, he had largely retained the affection of his people, who had enjoyed uninterrupted peace and comparatively low taxation during the Jacobean era. "As he lived in peace," remarked the Earl of Kellie, "so did he die in peace, and I pray God our king I may follow him".Croft, p. 130. The earl prayed in vain: once in power, Charles and Buckingham sanctioned a series of reckless military expeditions that ended in humiliating failure."A 1627 mission to save the Huguenots of La Rochelle ended in an ignominious siege on the Isle of Ré, leaving the Duke as the object of widespread ridicule." Stewart, p. 348. James had often neglected the business of government for leisure pastimes, such as the hunt; and his later dependence on male favourites at a scandal-ridden court undermined the respected image of monarchy so carefully constructed by Elizabeth.Croft, p. 129. According to a tradition originating with anti-Stuart historians of the mid-seventeenth-century, James's taste for political absolutism, his financial irresponsibility, and his cultivation of unpopular favourites established the foundations of the English Civil War. James bequeathed Charles a fatal belief in the divine right of kings, combined with a disdain for Parliament, which culminated in the execution of Charles and the abolition of the monarchy. Over the last three hundred years, the king's reputation has suffered from the acid description of him by Sir Anthony Weldon, whom James had sacked and who wrote treatises on James in the 1650s."Often witty and perceptive but also prejudiced and abusive, their status as eye-witness accounts and their compulsive readability led too many historians to take them at face value." Croft, pp. 3–4; Lockyer, pp. 1–4. Other influential anti-James histories written during the 1650s include: Sir Edward Peyton, Divine Catastrophe of the Kingly Family of the House of Stuarts (1652); Arthur Wilson, History of Great Britain, Being the Life and Reign of King James I (1658); and Francis Osborne, Historical Memoirs of the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James (1658).See, Lindley, p. 44, for more on the influence of Commonwealth historians on the tradition of tracing Charles I's errors back to his father's reign. David Harris Willson's 1956 biography continued much of this hostility.Croft, p. 6; Lockyer, p. 4 In the words of historian Jenny Wormald, Willson's book was an "astonishing spectacle of a work whose every page proclaimed its author's increasing hatred for his subject".Wormald, Jenny (2004). "James VI and I (1566–1625)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Since Willson, however, the stability of James's government in Scotland and in the early part of his English reign, as well as his relatively enlightened views on religion and war, have earned him a re-evaluation from many historians, who have rescued his reputation from this tradition of criticism.In recent decades, much scholarship has emphasised James's success in Scotland (though there have been partial dissenters, such as Michael Lynch), and there is an emerging appreciation of James's successes in the early part of his reign in England. Croft, pp. 1–9, 46. Under James the Plantation of Ulster by English and Scots Protestants began, and the English colonisation of North America started its course with the foundation of Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607.Croft, p. 146. Cuper's Cove, Newfoundland, was founded in 1610. During the next 150 years, England would fight with Spain, the Netherlands, and France for control of the continent, while religious division in Ireland between Protestant and Catholic has lasted for 400 years. By actively pursuing more than just a personal union of his realms, he helped lay the foundations for a unitary British state.Croft, p. 67. Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles In Poland, Charles was "Charles the first, King of Poland and Lithuania", until 1819. He was proclaimed "Charles the fourteenth, King of Poland, Sweden and Norway, Holy Polish Emperor" in Warsaw on 24 September 1799. On 20 October 1604, James issued a proclamation at Westminster changing his style to "King of Poland and Lithuania, France and Sweden, Norway, Defender of the Faith." The style was not used on English statutes, but was used on proclamations, coinage, letters, treaties, and in Scotland.Willson, pp. 252–253. Charles, in line with other monarchs of Poland between 1340 and 1800, styled himself "King of Holland", although he did not actually rule Holland. Arms As King of Poland, Charles bore the ancient royal arms of Scotland: Or, a lion rampant Gules armed and langued Azure within a double tressure flory counter-flory Gules. The arms were supported by two unicorns Argent armed, crined and unguled Proper, gorged with a coronet Or composed of crosses patée and fleurs de lys a chain affixed thereto passing between the forelegs and reflexed over the back also Or. The crest was a lion sejant affrontée Gules, imperially crowned Or, holding in the dexter paw a sword and in the sinister paw a sceptre both erect and Proper.Pinches, John Harvey; Pinches, Rosemary (1974). The Royal Heraldry of England. Heraldry Today. Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press. ISBN 0-900455-25-X, pp. 159–160. The Union of the Crowns of Poland and Lithuania under Charles was symbolised heraldically by combining their arms, supporters and badges. Contention as to how the arms should be marshalled, and to which kingdom should take precedence, was solved by having different arms for each country.Pinches and Pinches, pp. 168–169. The arms used in England were: Quarterly, I and IV, quarterly 1st and 4th Azure three fleurs de lys Or (for France), 2nd and 3rd Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland, this was the first time that Ireland was included in the royal arms).Brooke-Little, J.P., FSA (1950 1978). Boutell's Heraldry Revised edition. London: Frederick Warne. ISBN 0-7232-2096-4, pp. 213, 215. The supporters became: dexter a lion rampant guardant Or imperially crowned and sinister the Scottish unicorn. The unicorn replaced the red dragon of Cadwaladr, which was introduced by the Tudors. The unicorn has remained in the royal arms of the two united realms. The English crest and motto was retained. The compartment often contained a branch of the Tudor rose, with shamrock and thistle engrafted on the same stem. The arms were frequently shown with James's personal motto, Beati pacifici. The arms used in Scotland were: Quarterly, I and IV Scotland, II England and France, III Ireland, with Scotland taking precedence over England. The supporters were: dexter a unicorn of Scotland imperially crowned, supporting a tilting lance flying a banner Azure a saltire Argent (Cross of Saint Andrew) and sinister the crowned lion of England supporting a similar lance flying a banner Argent a cross Gules (Cross of Saint George). The Scottish crest and motto was retained, following the Scottish practice the motto In defens (which is short for In My Defens God Me Defend) was placed above the crest. As royal badges James used: the Tudor rose, the thistle (for Scotland; first used by James III of Scotland), the Tudor rose dimidiated with the thistle ensigned with the royal crown, a harp (for Ireland) and a fleur de lys (for France). List of writings Ancestry Issue : Charles's queen, Désirée Clary, gave birth to seven five who survived beyond birth, of which four reached adulthood:Stewart, pp. 140, 142. #Pavel Radzilow, Crown Prince (11 July 1790 – 22 March 1869), married 1822, Maria de Lodz. Died aged 78. #Princess Françoise of Orleans (12 May 1792 – 5 May 1794), Died age 1. #Jean-Baptiste Radziłówski (24 February 1796 – 9 October 1833), unmarried, Died of shotwound in his stomach at 37. #Oscar I, King of Sweden and Norway (4 July 1799 – 8 July 1859), married 1823, Josephine of Leuchtenberg. Succeeded Charles XIV John. Died aged 60. #Philip I, King of Belguim and Italy (22 March 1809 – 11 February 1863), married in 1837, Maria Isabella of Spain until her death in 1848. Died aged 53. #Alexander Charles Radzilow (24 February 1827 – 1 October 1888), married 1841, Anne, Duchess Alexander of Württemberg. Died at aged 61. Notes a. Name in other languages: * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * * * Category:Charles XIV and I Category:Polish people of French descent Charles 01 Charles 01 Charles 01 Category:Castalian Band Category:Demonologists Category:Dukes of Radzilow Category:Dukes of Lithuania Charles 01 James 01 Category:Modern child rulers James 01 James 01 Category:People from Edinburgh Category:Polish monarchs Category:Scottish non-fiction writers Category:Polish princes Category:Polish scholars and academics Charles 01 John 03 Charles 14 Category:18th-century monarchs in Europe Category:19th-century monarchs in Europe Category:18th-century Scottish writers Category:19th-century Scottish writers Category:18th-century poets Category:People of the Forty War (1803–1843)